Philosophy or Not? An Analysis of the Potential Philosophical Aspect of Apuleius’ “The Golden Ass”

Apuleius’ Metamorphoses, later given its now more popular name The Golden Ass by Saint Augustine, is the only complete ancient Roman novel that exists today.  It tells the story of a man named Lucius whose itching curiosity and desire to learn magic backfired when he inadvertently turned into an ass.  Most of the book recounts the adventures of Lucius the ass, adventures plagued by misfortune and humiliation.  Lucius’ suffering eventually comes to an end in book 11 when he is transformed back to his human state by the goddess Isis in return for Lucius’ perpetual devotion to her as a member of the cult of Isis.  While The Golden Ass may appear to be a normal, comedy filled account of the trials and tribulations of an ass, many scholars believe that there is a lot a more to Apuleius’ work than is given credit for.  There is a strong belief that The Golden Ass is actually a philosophical text of the Platonic tradition.  This stems from the fact that Apuleius himself was a learned Platonist who had written philosophical texts before, chief among them being The God of Socrates (De Deo Socratis). There have been, however, conflicting opinions regarding the true extant of the connection between philosophy and Apuleius’ novel.  Scholars have pointed out the contradictions to Platonic philosophy in the text while others have also pointed out the similarities.  The goal of this paper will therefore be to answer the question of whether The Golden Ass is truly a philosophical text in disguise.  This will be done by analysing the perceived similarities and contradictions the text has to Platonic philosophy.  Can The Golden Ass be read as a philosophical allegory?  Did Apuleius intend for his text to be read in such a way in the first place?  

In order to begin this investigation, it is important to first understand the author of The Golden Ass, his background, and the significance of it when it comes to identifying the potential philosophical aspect of the novel.  Apuleius, lived in the 2nd century AD in the Roman province of Numidia (modern-day northern Algeria).  He himself was Numidian, but he likely learnt Latin and Greek along with his native Berber as he grew up.  As a man, he travelled extensively, spending years in Carthage, Athens, and Rome.  It was in Rome where Apuleius studied Latin rhetoric extensively and it was there he likely built his reputation as a Latin prose writer.  During his many years in Athens, Apuleius studied Platonic philosophy passionately as well as the Greek literary tradition.  He was not necessarily a philosopher with new, groundbreaking ideas, but he was incredibly learned in the subject and his scholarly endeavours were essential in the spreading of Middle Platonist ideas in western Europe.  In terms of philosophical literature, he is known to have written a philosophical treatise on politics known as De Republica as well as translating Plato’s Phaedo.  Both of these texts are lost.  However, we do have his other philosophical texts, namely – De deo Socratis, Ascleptius, De Platone et Eius Dogmate, Peri Epmineias, and De Mundo.  With Apuleius’ extensive academic background in philosophy, one may wonder if this has influenced The Golden Ass in any way.  Another important aspect of Apuleius’ life to note is that he had a keen interest in the Isiac cults, something which was most likely the reason behind his travels to Alexandria, Egypt.  This is of course connected to the crucial role of the goddess Isis in the novel.  Apuleius also had an interest in magic and the mystical, a theme not only central to The Golden Ass but also an interesting characteristic of Neoplatonism, a philosophical tradition that will be discussed in depth shortly.  Lucius, the main character of the novel, is also revealed to be from Madauros, the home of Apuleius.  This, as well as his real-life interest in the cults of Isis and connection to magic and mysticism, prompts the possible question of whether Apuleius intended for Lucius to be a representation of himself and his life. 

Having understood Apuleius’ background and relationship with philosophy, we may now begin to anaylse the possible connections between philosophy and The Golden Ass.  There have been some scholarly opinions that suggest that the novel is heavily influenced by what is known as Neoplatonism.  Neoplatonism is a branch of Platonic philosophy that developed in the 3rd century AD and would eventually be the dominant philosophical tradition of Europe.  It heavily influenced Mediaeval scholarship, studied extensively by Christian, Jewish, and Muslim thinkers such as Thomas Aquinas, Maimonides, and Avicenna.  The 3rd century Hellenistic philosopher Plotinus is widely considered to be the founder of Neoplatonism with his key ideas being outlined in the Enneads, a collection of his writings compiled by his student Porphyry.  Some believe that “Neoplatonism” is the wrong name for this philosophical tradition.  While Neoplatonists did accept Plato’s ideas and doubted to some extent those of Aristotle and the Sceptics, their philosophy was more of a synthesis of all of the most profound and influential philosophical ideas of the time.  The core ideas of Neoplatonism included the concept of “the One”, the soul’s return to the One, the celestial hierarchy, and the emanations from the One.  With regards to The Golden Ass, the concept of the One is most applicable.  The most obvious connection is that the goddess Isis can easily be representative of the supreme, perfect, divine being of Neoplatonism.  The ultimate supremacy of Isis is clearly established as she states in the book, “Here I am, Lucius, roused by your prayers.  I am the mother of the world of nature, mistress of all the elements, first-born in this realm of time.  I am the loftiest of deities, queen of departed spirits, foremost of heavenly dwellers, the single embodiment of all gods and goddesses.”  Isis, like the One, is the deity of all things pure and real.  She is the deity of deities.  

Another core Neoplatonist connection present in The Golden Ass is the idea of salvation from a state of vice.  In the novel, we see how Lucius desired to learn the ways of magic and how his curiosity ended up punishing him by turning him into an ass.  He was driven not by intellect and virtue but by greed and a lust for power (vice) that the witch Pamphile possessed.  One could make the observation that by turning into an ass, Lucius was turned into the thing that least resembled man, the only animal philosophers believed could reason and hence be connected to the divine.  This could also be related to the Neoplatonist belief that by leading an unvirtuous life, one inevitably relinquishes the divine in him.  Lucius turning into an ass could be seen as an example, albeit a comical one, as to how desire of material possessions (here magic) is detrimental to the person. Neoplatonists, as well as the earlier Platonists, believed that when one desires material possessions instead of intellectual growth, his soul becomes more detached from its divine nature.  In The Golden Ass, this theme appears in the very first page - “I want you to feel wonder at the transformations of men’s shapes and destinies into alien forms, and their reversion by a chain of interconnection to their own” (Apuleius 1, 1).  Note how Apuleius immediately makes a connection between “shapes” and “destinies” (or “forms” and “fortunes” in other translations).  When one strays too far from the human forms (reason and intellect) and indulges in vice often through the pursuit of material pleasure, he/she becomes isolated from the divine and suffers as a result.  After all his humiliating and degrading sufferings as an ass, Lucius was at last redeemed by the goddess Isis.  His transformation into an ass and his adventures as an animal could be related to the idea of reincarnation in Neoplatonism and how “unworthy” souls were sent back to the physical realm (as a man or some other animal) in order to be purified.  Lucius, following Neoplatonist logic, therefore became purified after learning about the dangers of seeking material possessions and of leading a generally unvirtuous life. Only then was he deemed worthy by the goddess Isis to be transformed back into a man - to be saved.  The cult of Isis, then, could represent the higher realms of heaven that Neoplatonists describe.  

Lucius’ transformation could have been foreshadowed in book two when, upon entering the house of his aunt Byrhenna, Lucius finds a beautiful statue depicting a scene from the myth of Diana and Actaeon.  Actaeon was a hunter who accidently stumbled upon the goddess Diana taking a bath in a spring.  The goddess, who maintained strict chastity, upon spotting Actaeon turned him into a stag by splashing some of the spring water on him.  Ironically, Actaeon now became the hunted was unfortunately chased down and killed by his dogs as they did not recognise their master.  Actaeon turning into a stag can be compared to Lucius turning into an ass later in the story.  But more importantly, it could also be seen as a comparison to Lucius’ attraction to earthly desire, represented by Actaeon’s enthrallment by Diana’s beauty, and Lucius’ consequent punishment as represented by Actaeon’s transformation into a stag.  

This theme of being punished for indulging in material possessions can also be seen in the story Aristomenes tells in book one about his friend Socrates (no relation to the philosopher, but the use of his name is interesting).  When Aristomenes explains how, while in Hypata, he found Socrates in an absolutely terrible state looking decrepit and wearing just a few tattered clothes.   He recounts Socrates’ explanation for his current condition.  Socrates explains that after attending a gladiatorial game in Macedonia, he was robbed by some bandits while on the way to Larissa.  Later, he was taken in by an inn keeper named Meroe, who was later revealed to be a powerful witch, and was fed free of charge.  Meroe, however, seduced Socrates and ended up sleeping with him.  During this, Socrates had a strange feeling of being trapped and so he decided to give Meroe everything he had, including his clothes, in order to be free of her.  This is the reason for his sad state.  In response, Aristomenes scolded Socrates – ““You certainly deserve to suffer the worst possible fate, if there is anything worse than your recent experiences, because you put the pleasures of sex and a leather-skinned whore before your home and children”” (1, 8).  Aristomenes essentially tells Socrates that his punishment is the result of his pursuit of material possessions (sex and possibly the gladiatorial game) and that his indulgence in vice as displayed by dishonouring his family led Fortune to turn against him. 

 To digress slightly, Fortune is a common theme throughout The Golden Ass.  It also has a connection to Natural Law, a concept that was present in Greek thought and was later expanded by Christian theologians like Thomas Aquinas.  Natural Law is a moral code that transcends time and is absolute and permanent in nature.  The Greek poet Hesiod describes Natural Law in his Works and Days.  Referring to it as the “nomos”, he warns his errant and prodigal brother Perses that if he does not change his ways, he will be punished by Zeus who is the executioner of the nomos.  Natural Law is based on the idea of absolute justice.  In short, one must do good and avoid evil lest he/she suffers the inevitable consequences (similar to karma).  Going back to The Golden Ass, one can argue that Fortune represents Hesiod’s Zeus or the potential punishment or reward one receives based on his/her conduct and actions.  Perhaps Lucius in his lust for the power granted by magic disobeyed Natural Law and incurred the wrath of Fortune who in response punished Lucius by turning him into an ass.  

The other connection between The Golden Ass and philosophy stems from the roots of the Platonic tradition with one of Plato’s most famous texts – the Symposium.  The central topic of the Symposium is love.  It tackles the question of what is considered to be the best form of love as well as love’s connection to the human soul.  In classic Platonic style, the Symposium is written as a lengthy conversation among the speakers, chief of whom being Socrates, Alcibiades, Aristophanes, Pausanias, Agathon, Eryximachus, and Phaedrus.  Plato himself is of course not a character in the story but he uses his teacher Socrates as a mouthpiece for his ideas.  In short, Socrates’s argument in the Symposium began with the fact that, as opposed to Agathon’s definition, love is not self-sufficient because love is by nature of something.  Love desires something that it lacks, namely good and beautiful things.  However, this does not mean that love in itself is ugly.  It is neither beautiful nor ugly.  But instead of being seen as an object, love should be seen as one’s search for all things beautiful and pure, things that he/she lacks in life.  The eternal Good that all humans ought to search for through philosophical contemplation should be the goal of love.     

Love is a prominent theme throughout The Golden Ass, but it is in perhaps the book’s most famous episode, the story of Cupid and Psyche, that love takes centre stage.  The story recounts how Cupid, the mischievous son of Venus, fell in love with a most beautiful woman named Psyche.  The two end up splitting after Psyche breaks Cupid’s trust by discovering Cupid’s divine form.  Regardless of the split, however, Psyche was determined to find her greatest love.  All the while, Venus, jealous of the admiration Psyche had received over the years for her incredible beauty, desperately searched for Psyche in order to punish her for her supposed arrogance.  When Psyche decided to confront her fate at Venus’ abode, she is treated like an animal and is forced to undergo four seemingly impossible tasks.  Psyche completed the first three tasks with the help of animals and the divine.  During the fourth and final task, as Psyche was nearing death after mistakenly opening the box holding a dose of Proserpina’s beauty, Cupid swooped in and saved her.  The story ends happily with the marriage of Cupid and Psyche in Olympus.  What, then, is the connection between Plato’s idea of love as found in the Symposium to the Cupid and Psyche episode?  One possible way to read this story could be as an allegory of the soul and particularly its journey to reach the highest form of knowledge, in this case divine love.  It is interesting to note that the name Psyche literally means “soul” in Greek, something which adds further truth to the above theory.  However, the theory soon falls apart when one takes into account the events and details of the story.  To begin with, Psyche is not quite searching for the highest form of knowledge or divine love that Plato/Socrates describes in the Symposium.  She is simply physically attracted to Cupid.  She does not seem to care about using her relationship with Cupid as a means to achieve something greater.  She wants him and him only.  This, as one may imagine, is something that Plato would not have encouraged.  Plato believed that physical love was merely a step towards something much bigger.  It was not, or should not, be the ultimate goal.  

To add further criticism of the allegorical reading of the Cupid and Psyche story and the idea of Psyche on a journey to find the greatest form of knowledge, here divine love, is the fact that Cupid’s character is in no way virtuous.  “Divine love” suggests that this is the greatest form of love.  But Cupid is not divine love personified, at least not according to Plato’s philosophy.  He may be divine, but he is certainly not the love that Socrates describes in the Symposium.  Cupid is mischievous, unfaithful, and immoral.  Jupiter in The Golden Ass describes him as “…the subject of enough notoriety in day-to-day gossip on account of his adulteries and all manner of improprieties” (6, 23).  Cupid is the epitome of excess, something that Plato as well as Aristotle would have greatly discouraged.  

The comments of Pausanias, one of the speakers in the Symposium, are quite applicable to the Cupid and Psyche story.  Pausanias stated that there were two types of Aphrodite (love) - the Heavenly Aphrodite and the Common Aphrodite.  Common Aphrodite, or Common Love, is present in the relationship between a man and a woman or a man and a young boy.  This type of love is characterised by sexual desire and satisfaction.  Heavenly Love, which can only be practised by an older man and a younger man, takes things to a different level because it focuses on achieving virtue and bettering the younger man.  Pausanias’ view regarding love is similar but not exactly the same as Socrates’ as they both disagree on love’s permanence.  Regardless, Pausanias’ idea of Common Love is interesting because this is exactly what is present in the relationship of Cupid and Psyche.  For one, only men and women could practise Common Love.  Cupid is a man and Psyche is a woman.  Women were not considered to be able to practise Heavenly Love because their mental capabilities were thought to be too insufficient.  This is obviously incredibly sexist, but this was the prevailing belief at the time.  Moreover, Common Love focuses solely on sexual/physical love, something which is illustrated in the story as it is clear that Psyche is incredibly attracted to Cupid’s physical beauty.  

As we have seen, the story of Cupid and Psyche, the themes present in it and the events that transpired, greatly contradict the philosophy of Plato with regards to love.  Psyche did not intend to use her relationship with Cupid as a means of achieving the Ultimate Good or the Ultimate Truth that Plato and many other philosophers believed should be the goal of every human being.  Psyche was instead focused solely on Cupid’s physical beauty, nothing else. Cupid himself does not “fit the bill” when it comes to being divine love personified.  However, this does not mean that the Cupid and Psyche story is devoid of any Platonic connection.  This has already been demonstrated with Psyche’s name.  But what if Apuleius actually intended for this story to be read as a comical philosophical analogy?  In other words, was Apuleius making a parody of Plato’s philosophy?  The mischievous and promiscuous Cupid representing the divine love that Psyche desperately seeks could be seen as a twisted interpretation of the human soul striving to reach the Ultimate Good.  Apuleius turns the goal of love as described in the Symposium into a parody in order to perhaps implicitly illustrate the impossibility of Plato’s/Socrates’ theory due to its overly optimistic confidence in human potential.  Again, in the story, this can be seen with the fact that Psyche cared not for the philosophical Good that could be achieved through her relationship with Cupid but was simply enthralled by his physical beauty and divinity.  Both the theory of the Cupid and Psyche story being a philosophical analogy and the theory that the story is a parody of philosophical ideas are supported by the fact that Apuleius had a background in philosophy as described earlier in this essay.

In conclusion, it is unclear whether Apuleius intended for his book to be read through a philosophical lens.  On the one hand, there are clearly elements of Neoplatonic and Platonic philosophy that can be found in the story.  The goddess Isis, described as one of the most powerful deities and perhaps second only to Jupiter in terms of power and influence, neatly fits the role of the One that is present in Neoplatonist beliefs.  The Neoplatonic ideas of salvation and the dangers of leading a life of vice are also found.  Maybe the most obvious philosophical connection can be seen in the story of Cupid and Psyche.  However, a connection does not necessarily mean similarity.  Yes, there are elements of philosophy in The Golden Ass, but they are used in a way that contradicts the teachings of Neoplatonists and earlier philosophers like Plato.  Therefore, and this is my personal theory, Apuleius did intentionally incorporate philosophy into the story, but he did it in a way that could be seen as a parody.  And this makes sense when one considers the overall story. The Golden Ass is a comedy.  It would not make sense for Apuleius to construct an analogy to, say, the role of love in the soul’s journey to obtain the Ultimate Good as described in the Symposium.  Although he could have made such an analogy in a comical manner as well, the contradictions seem to suggest that he instead wanted to turn certain philosophical ideas on their heads in order to point out their absurdity for the sake of comedy.  Another potential issue regarding the idea that The Golden Ass is secretly a philosophical text is the fact that Apuleius’ novel is a Latin adaptation of a Greek original.  This means that for Apuleius’ work to be considered philosophical, the previous original would also have to be considered philosophical, something which is impossible to determine since the Greek version is lost.  Nevertheless, it could also be argued that Apuleius incorporated philosophical elements in his version that were not present in the original.  With all this being said, however, it is simply impossible to determine Apuleius’ true intentions with regards to how he wanted his novel to be read.  While this may seem rather frustrating, perhaps this adds to the novel’s intrigue.  The beauty of reading such texts is that everyone will inevitably come up with their own interpretations.  One can always use his/her imagination with regards to the “true meaning” of the text and, to me, this is more exciting than if the main message or purpose of the text was already known.  People will always debate the “correct” way of reading the novel, but as long as this debate persists, as long as the novel is being discussed, The Golden Ass will live on forever.  This is something that Apuleius undoubtedly would be proud of.

Bibliography

Apuleius, Lucius, and Patrick Gerard Walsh. The Golden Ass. Oxford University Press, 2008. 

Hesiod, and M. L. West. Theogony and Works and Days. Oxford University Press, 2008. 

Plato, and Christopher Gill. The Symposium. Penguin Books, 1999.